Evaluating the Potential of Tapered Members for Embodied Carbon Reduction in Gable Steel Frames
Received: 12 May 2025 | Revised: 24 May 2025 and 1 June 2025 | Accepted: 6 June 2025 | Online: 2 August 2025
Corresponding author: Riza Suwondo
Abstract
As part of the global sustainability efforts, the construction industry is facing an increasing pressure to reduce its environmental impact, particularly in terms of Embodied Carbon (EC) emissions. Steel, a critical material in modern construction, contributes significantly to these emissions owing to its carbon-intensive production process. This study investigated the potential of tapered steel members as sustainable alternatives to standard I-beams in gable steel frame structures, focusing on reducing the EC and improving the overall structural efficiency. This study evaluates the structural performance, embodied carbon, and cost implications of tapered members compared to standard I-beams across different span lengths. The results show that the tapered steel members can achieve up to a 22% reduction EC compared to the standard I-beams while also providing higher design efficiency. These benefits became more pronounced as the span width increased. From a cost perspective, the tapered members offer savings for shorter spans; however, for longer spans, the increased fabrication complexity may offset the material and carbon reductions. This study contributes to the growing body of knowledge on sustainable structural design by emphasizing the importance of the material optimization and environmental impact reduction in the construction industry.
Keywords:
tapered steel member, embodied carbon, low carbon steel design, built environment, construction sustainabilityDownloads
References
Hamilton. I. et al, 2022 Global Status Report for Buildings and Construction. Nairobi, Kenya: United Nations Environment Programme, 2022.
Long-Term Strategy for Low Carbon and Climate Resilience 2050, Jakarta, Indonesia: Ministry of Environment and Forestry, 2021.
Directive (EU) 2024/1275 of the European Parliament and of the Council. Brussels, Belgium: The European Parliament and the Council of the European Union, 2024.
L. Chen et al., "Green construction for low-carbon cities: a review," Environmental Chemistry Letters, vol. 21, no. 3, pp. 1627–1657, Jun. 2023. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-022-01544-4
R. Hingorani and J. Köhler, "Towards optimised decisions for resource and carbon-efficient structural design," Civil Engineering and Environmental Systems, vol. 40, no. 1–2, pp. 1–31, Apr. 2023. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10286608.2023.2198767
A. Jayasinghe, J. Orr, T. Ibell, and W. Boshoff, "Minimising embodied carbon in reinforced concrete flat slabs through parametric design," Journal of Building Engineering, vol. 50, 2022, Art. no. 104136. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2022.104136
E. Marsh, J. Orr, and T. Ibell, "Quantification of uncertainty in product stage embodied carbon calculations for buildings," Energy and Buildings, vol. 251, Nov. 2021, Art. no. 111340. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2021.111340
A. Toktarova, I. Karlsson, J. Rootzén, L. Göransson, M. Odenberger, and F. Johnsson, "Pathways for Low-Carbon Transition of the Steel Industry—A Swedish Case Study," Energies, vol. 13, no. 15, Jul. 2020, Art. no. 3840. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/en13153840
M. Keintjem, R. Suwondo, L. Cunningham, and H. Razak, "Embodied Carbon in Concrete: Insights from Indonesia and Comparative Analysis with UK and USA," Engineering, Technology & Applied Science Research, vol. 14, no. 6, pp. 17737–17742, Dec. 2024. DOI: https://doi.org/10.48084/etasr.8781
L. Shi et al., "Comparative study of greenhouse gas emission calculations and the environmental impact in the life cycle assessment of buildings in China, Finland, and the United States," Journal of Building Engineering, vol. 70, Jul. 2023, Art. no. 106396. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2023.106396
S. Budinis, P. Levi, H. Mandová, and T. Vass, Iron and Steel Technology Roadmap: Towards more sustainable steelmaking, Paris, France: International Energy Agency, 2021.
E. Ching and J. V. Carstensen, "Truss topology optimization of timber–steel structures for reduced embodied carbon design," Engineering Structures, vol. 252, Feb. 2022, Art. no. 113540. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2021.113540
R. Suwondo and M. Keintjem, "Embodied carbon reduction strategies for steel structures: a parametric design approach," Asian Journal of Civil Engineering, vol. 25, no. 4, pp. 3215–3223, Jun. 2024. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s42107-023-00973-y
R. Suwondo, Juliastuti, and M. Keintjem, "Integrated assessment of embodied carbon and financial costs in simply supported beams," Journal of Building Pathology and Rehabilitation, vol. 9, no. 2, Dec. 2024, Art. no. 86. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s41024-024-00439-x
Y. L. Li, M. Y. Han, S. Y. Liu, and G. Q. Chen, "Energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions by buildings: A multi-scale perspective," Building and Environment, vol. 151, pp. 240–250, Mar. 2019. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2018.11.003
A. Kaveh, M. Z. Kabir, and M. Bohlool, "Optimal Design of Multi-Span Pitched Roof Frames with Tapered Members," Periodica Polytechnica Civil Engineering, vol. 63, no. 1, pp. 77-86, Oct. 2018. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3311/PPci.13107
R. McKinstray, J. B. P. Lim, T. T. Tanyimboh, D. T. Phan, and W. Sha, "Optimal design of long-span steel portal frames using fabricated beams," Journal of Constructional Steel Research, vol. 104, pp. 104–114, Jan. 2015. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcsr.2014.10.010
A. Kaveh and M. H. Ghafari, "Geometry and Sizing Optimization of Steel Pitched Roof Frames with Tapered Members Using Nine Metaheuristics," Iranian Journal of Science and Technology, Transactions of Civil Engineering, vol. 43, no. 1, pp. 1–8, Mar. 2019. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40996-018-0132-1
S. Chan, S. Liu, and Y. Liu, "Second-order Direct Analysis of Steel Structures made of tapered members," in Proceedings 12th international conference on Advances in Steel-Concrete Composite Structures - ASCCS 2018, Jun. 2018. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4995/ASCCS2018.2018.7221
A. I. Dogariu, A. Crișan, M. Cristuțiu, D. L. Nunes, and A. Juca, "Behavior of Steel Welded Tapered Beam-column," The Open Civil Engineering Journal, vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 345–357, Jun. 2017. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2174/1874149501711010345
É. Maia, C. Couto, P. Vila Real, and N. Lopes, "The General Method for the fire design of I-section web-tapered beam–columns," Thin-Walled Structures, vol. 174, May 2022, Art. no. 109108. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tws.2022.109108
E. J. Sippel, R. D. Ziemian, and H. B. Blum, "Analysis of non-symmetric cross-sections relative to the provisions of AISC 360-10," in Annual Stability Conference Structural Stability Research Council, Atlanta, Georgia, Apr. 2020.
T. Dokšanović, I. Radić, and B. Biserčić, "Buckling Resistance of Tapered Steel Columns," Applied Sciences, vol. 13, no. 20, Oct. 2023, Art. no. 11498. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/app132011498
Y. Guo and M. Alam, "Nonlinear bending and thermal postbuckling of magneto-electro-elastic nonlocal strain-gradient beam including surface effects," Applied Mathematical Modelling, vol. 142, Jun. 2025, Art. no. 115955. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apm.2025.115955
M. Alam, Y. Guo, Y. Bai, and S. Luo, "Post-critical nonlinear vibration of nonlocal strain gradient beam involving surface energy effects," Journal of Sound and Vibration, vol. 601, Apr. 2025, Art. no. 118930. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsv.2025.118930
R. Bai, S.-W. Liu, and S.-L. Chan, "Modal and Elastic Time-History Analysis of Frames with Tapered Sections by Non-Prismatic Elements," International Journal of Structural Stability and Dynamics, vol. 18, no. 09, Sep. 2018, Art. no. 1850106. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1142/S0219455418501067
L. Jia, P. Li, Y. Jia, and S. Cai, "Study on seismic performance of tapered castellated steel member portal frame," Structures, vol. 58, Dec. 2023, Art. no. 105540. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.istruc.2023.105540
A. Salama, A. Atif, A. Eraky, and R. Samir, "Optimal design of steel gable frames with tapered members using Enhanced Crystal Structure Algorithm (ECryStAl)," Structures, vol. 50, pp. 1742–1751, Apr. 2023. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.istruc.2023.03.019
SAP2000: Structural Analysis and Design, Computers and Structures Inc. 2025. [Online]. Available: https://www.csiamerica.com/products/sap2000.
Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, ASCE/SEI 7-16, American Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, VA, 2016.
Specification for Structural Steel Buildings, ANSI/AISC 360-16, American Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, VA, 2016.
Sustainability of construction works: Assessment of environmental performance of buildings Calculation method, BS 15978: 2011, British Standards Institution, London, United Kingdom, 2011.
G. Hammond, C. Jones, F. Lowrie, and P. Tse, Embodied carbon: the Inventory of Carbon and Energy (ICE). Bracknell, United Kingdom: Building Services Research and Intelligence Association, 2011.
C. Couto, "Neural network models for the critical bending moment of uniform and tapered beams," Structures, vol. 41, pp. 1746–1762, Jul. 2022. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.istruc.2022.05.096
Downloads
How to Cite
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Riza Suwondo, Militia Keintjem, Made Suangga
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
- Authors retain the copyright and grant the journal the right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) after its publication in ETASR with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
